Doing Something for Someone
How does a language say an action was done for someone?
English hangs a beneficiary on the end of the clause with “for”, or slips it in front of the object: cook a meal for her, cook her a meal. Elsewhere the verb itself carries the news. Swahili lengthens the stem, Tagalog rebuilds the clause around the person who profits, and across East and Southeast Asia into West Africa a second verb meaning “give” follows the first. Japanese splits that second verb three ways, so one act of cooking is worded differently depending on who ends up better off — and uses the passive when the answer is nobody.
- 机制
- 语法化
策略
A second verb “give”
[V] + GIVE → done for someoneThe verb that names the action is joined by a verb that elsewhere means handing something over. Japanese 〜てくれる and 〜てあげる, Korean 〜어 주다, Mandarin 給 gěi, Thai ให้ hâi, Vietnamese cho and Ewe ná all work this way. The goods have dropped out: what is given is the action.
A second verb “receive”
[V] + RECEIVE → I had it done for meThe same event told from the other end, with the beneficiary as subject. Japanese 〜てもらう makes the person who profits the one the sentence is about, so 作ってもらった says of the speaker what 作ってくれた says of the cook. This is the rarest of the strategies here, and the languages that have it cluster in and around Japan.
An applicative on the verb
V-APPL → the beneficiary becomes an objectAn affix on the verb licenses a beneficiary and treats it like a direct object, with no preposition anywhere. Swahili pika “cook” becomes pikia “cook for”, Chichewa and Zulu use reflexes of -ir-/-el-, Classical Nahuatl has -lia, and Ainu prefixes ko- to the verb. The clause gains an argument it had no room for before.
Voice on the verb
V-VOICE → the affected person is what the clause is built onVoice morphology rebuilds the clause around the person the event lands on, without adding an argument the way an applicative does. Tagalog i- selects the beneficiary as the pivot, the participant the ang-phrase names. Japanese reaches for the passive in the unwelcome case and can build it on an intransitive verb, which admits an affected person into an event that has no slot for one.
A “for” phrase
for / 替 / ために + BENEFICIARYA preposition or postposition marks the beneficiary and leaves the verb untouched. English for, German für, Russian для, Turkish için, Hindi के लिए and Japanese のために sit here. Several of these languages keep the phrase for emphasis or contrast while using a shorter construction by default.
Dative or bare object
V + BENEFICIARY.DATA case ending does the work — German ihm, Russian ему, Latin mihi, the Ancient Greek dative — or, in a language with no case left, the beneficiary simply takes an object slot next to the thing produced, as in cook her a meal. The same datives often double as possessors: French je lui ai lavé les mains puts the owner of the hands in the dative rather than the genitive.
地理分布
选定一个对象，每个圆点即为该语言的说法，颜色对应动词所用的策略。点击圆点可查看具体形式。
Marker positions are approximate cultural centres — they are not territorial claims. Tiles: OpenFreeMap · © OpenStreetMap contributors · Dark tiles: © CARTO.
语言对比
| Language | Strategy | Expression | Note |
|---|---|---|---|
Japanese Japonic | A second verb “give” | 作ってくれた tsukutte kureta | くれる when the benefit comes toward the speaker, あげる when it goes away; くださる and さしあげる are the versions used where rank is at stake |
Japanese Japonic | A second verb “receive” | 作ってもらった tsukutte moratta | もらう < 貰う, to receive; いただく in deferential use |
Japanese Japonic | Voice on the verb | 雨に降られた ame ni furareta | the adversative passive, here on an intransitive verb — the unwelcome counterpart of the benefactive auxiliaries |
Japanese Japonic | A “for” phrase | 私のために watashi no tame ni | used where the auxiliary would be too weak or too intimate |
Korean Koreanic | A second verb “give” | 만들어 줬다 mandeureo jwotta | 주다, to give; one form for both directions, with 드리다 when the person served outranks the server |
Korean Koreanic | A “for” phrase | 나를 위해서 nareul wihaeseo | Korean has no auxiliary matching Japanese もらう and uses a full verb, 도움을 받다, to put the beneficiary in subject position; 받다 does occur in bound forms like 사랑받다 |
Mandarin Chinese Sino-Tibetan › Sinitic | A second verb “give” | 給我做飯 gěi wǒ zuò fàn | 給 stands before the verb here, and after it in 送給 |
Mandarin Chinese Sino-Tibetan › Sinitic | A “for” phrase | 替我 / 為我 tì wǒ / wèi wǒ | 替, to stand in for; 為, on account of |
Thai Tai-Kadai › Tai | A second verb “give” | ทำอาหารให้ผม tham aahǎan hâi phǒm | ให้ hâi is the ordinary verb “give”; with no object between them, ทำให้ reads as a causative instead |
Vietnamese Austroasiatic › Vietic | A second verb “give” | nấu cho tôi | cho, to give |
Vietnamese Austroasiatic › Vietic | A second verb “receive” | được giúp | được, to get, marks the welcome case; the unwelcome one takes bị |
Ewe Atlantic-Congo › Kwa | A second verb “give” | ná | the verb “give” in a serial chain |
Swahili Atlantic-Congo › Bantu | An applicative on the verb | nilimpikia | ni-li-m-pik-i-a, I cooked for him; pika “cook” → pikia “cook for”, and the vowel of the suffix follows the stem |
Chichewa (Nyanja) Atlantic-Congo › Bantu | An applicative on the verb | -ir- / -er- | the Bantu applicative extension |
Zulu Atlantic-Congo › Bantu | An applicative on the verb | -el- | |
Nahuatl Uto-Aztecan | An applicative on the verb | -lia | Classical Nahuatl |
Ainu Ainu (isolate, critically endangered) | An applicative on the verb | ko- | a prefix adding a participant the action is directed at |
Tagalog (Filipino) Austronesian › Philippine | Voice on the verb | i- (ibili) | the beneficiary becomes the pivot and takes the ang-phrase; ipag- serves other verb classes, and on this root ipagbili means “sell” rather than “buy for” |
English Indo-European › Germanic | A “for” phrase | cook a meal for her | |
English Indo-European › Germanic | Dative or bare object | cook her a meal | productive with native verbs; Latinate ones resist it, hence explain the problem to me but not *explain me the problem |
German Indo-European › Germanic | Dative or bare object | Ich habe ihr Essen gekocht | a free dative: kochen does not require it, and the benefit is what it adds |
German Indo-European › Germanic | A “for” phrase | für sie | |
Russian Indo-European › Slavic | Dative or bare object | Я ей приготовил еду Ja ej prigotovil edu | |
Russian Indo-European › Slavic | A “for” phrase | для меня dlja menja | |
Latin Indo-European › Italic (historical) | Dative or bare object | mihi | the dative of advantage, dativus commodi, beside the dative of disadvantage |
Ancient Greek Indo-European › Hellenic (historical) | Dative or bare object | μοι moi | the dative, which also covers the recipient and the possessor |
French Indo-European › Romance | Dative or bare object | Je lui ai préparé un repas | the dative clitic; aider by contrast takes a plain direct object and marks nothing |
French Indo-European › Romance | A “for” phrase | pour elle | |
Spanish Indo-European › Romance | Dative or bare object | Le preparé la cena | |
Turkish Turkic › Oghuz | A “for” phrase | onun için | |
Hindi Indo-European › Indo-Aryan | A “for” phrase | उसके लिए uske liye | |
Hindi Indo-European › Indo-Aryan | A second verb “give” | बना देना banā denā | देना as a vector verb; it also marks completion, so the benefactive reading depends on context |
Who ends up better off
One meal cooked, put four ways according to who profits, and a fifth row for the case where somebody loses. Japanese changes the auxiliary every time; Korean uses one auxiliary for the first two rows and reserves its marking for rank; German and Russian move a pronoun into the dative and leave the verb alone. An empty cell is a language with no dedicated construction there.
| Language | someone cooks for me The benefit arrives at the speaker or the speaker’s side. | I cook for someone The benefit leaves the speaker for someone else. | I had them cook for me The same event with the beneficiary as the subject of the sentence. | cooking for a superior The construction registers the social standing of the person served. | it happened on me The counterpart of benefit: someone is worse off for the event. |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Japanese Japonic | 作ってくれた tsukutte kureta A second verb “give” gave me the cooking | 作ってあげた tsukutte ageta A second verb “give” あげる is 上げる, to raise | 作ってもらった tsukutte moratta A second verb “receive” received the cooking | 作って差し上げた tsukutte sashiageta A second verb “give” さしあげる for serving a superior; くださる is the mirror image, a superior doing it for me | 雨に降られた ame ni furareta Voice on the verb the adversative passive, built on an intransitive verb |
Korean Koreanic | 만들어 줬다 mandeureo jwotta A second verb “give” | 만들어 줬다 mandeureo jwotta A second verb “give” the same form as the row above | — | 만들어 드렸다 mandeureo deuryeotta A second verb “give” 드리다 when the person served outranks the server | — |
Mandarin Chinese Sino-Tibetan › Sinitic | 他給我做了飯 tā gěi wǒ zuò le fàn A second verb “give” | 我給他做了飯 wǒ gěi tā zuò le fàn A second verb “give” the same 給, with the pronouns swapped | — | — | — |
Thai Tai-Kadai › Tai | ทำอาหารให้ผม tham aahǎan hâi phǒm A second verb “give” | ทำอาหารให้เขา tham aahǎan hâi kháo A second verb “give” the object อาหาร has to stand between the verbs; bare ทำให้ is read as a causative | — | — | — |
Vietnamese Austroasiatic › Vietic | nấu cho tôi A second verb “give” | nấu cho anh ấy A second verb “give” | — | — | — |
Swahili Atlantic-Congo › Bantu | amenipikia An applicative on the verb a-me-ni-pik-i-a, he has cooked for me | nimempikia An applicative on the verb ni-me-m-pik-i-a, I have cooked for him | — | — | — |
Tagalog (Filipino) Austronesian › Philippine | Ibili mo ako ng tinapay Voice on the verb buying rather than cooking; ako, the beneficiary, is the pivot of the clause | — | — | — | — |
English Indo-European › Germanic | she cooked me a meal Dative or bare object no marking on the verb; the beneficiary takes an object slot | I cooked her a meal Dative or bare object | I got her to cook for me a causative pressed into service; English has no benefactive construction here | — | the car died on me A “for” phrase the “on me” of misfortune |
German Indo-European › Germanic | sie hat mir Essen gekocht Dative or bare object a free dative: kochen does not ask for one | ich habe ihr Essen gekocht Dative or bare object | — | — | mir ist der Zug weggefahren Dative or bare object the dative of disadvantage: the train left on me |
Russian Indo-European › Slavic | она мне приготовила еду ona mne prigotovila edu Dative or bare object | я ей приготовил еду ja ej prigotovil edu Dative or bare object | — | — | — |
French Indo-European › Romance | elle m'a préparé un repas Dative or bare object | je lui ai préparé un repas Dative or bare object | — | — | — |
Hindi Indo-European › Indo-Aryan | मेरे लिए खाना बना दिया mere liye khānā banā diyā A second verb “give” two strategies at once: the के लिए phrase and the vector verb देना | उसके लिए खाना बना दिया uske liye khānā banā diyā A second verb “give” | — | — | — |
Turkish Turkic › Oghuz | benim için yemek yaptı A “for” phrase | onun için yemek yaptım A “for” phrase | — | — | — |
列的聚类
当同一语言对两列使用同一个动词时，两列即视为接近。分支在越靠右处合并，表示越多语言将该组合视为一体；表格与地图的列序依此树排列，因此相邻的列行为相似。
I had them cook for me sits at the far end. No language here uses its verb for someone cooks for me, I cook for someone, cooking for a superior or it happened on me.
例句
在「自然 / 直译 / 注释」之间切换，对比同一概念在各语言中的不同表达方式。
Who gives, who receives
Japanese picks a different auxiliary for each direction, and a third for telling the story from the beneficiary’s side. Korean, Mandarin and Thai use one GIVE verb throughout.
友達が作ってくれた。
tomodachi ga tsukutte kureta.
- 自然
- A friend made it for me.
妹に本を読んであげた。
imōto ni hon o yonde ageta.
- 自然
- I read my little sister a book.
友達に作ってもらった。
tomodachi ni tsukutte moratta.
- 自然
- I got a friend to make it for me.
친구가 만들어 줬어.
chingu-ga mandeureo jwosseo.
- 自然
- A friend made it for me.
我給他做了飯。
wǒ gěi tā zuò le fàn.
- 自然
- I cooked him a meal.
เขาทำอาหารให้ผม
kháo tham aahǎan hâi phǒm
- 自然
- He cooked a meal for me.
参考文献
- Ashton 1944 01Ashton, E. O. (1944).Swahili Grammar (Including Intonation).Longmans, Green & Co..
- Creissels 2010 02Creissels, Denis (2010).Benefactive applicative periphrases: A typological approach.In Zúñiga, Fernando; Kittilä, Seppo (eds.), Benefactives and Malefactives: Typological Perspectives and Case Studies. John Benjamins. 29–70. doi:10.1075/tsl.92.02cre
- Heine & Kuteva 2002 03Heine, Bernd; Kuteva, Tania (2002).World Lexicon of Grammaticalization.Cambridge University Press.
- Kittilä 2005 04Kittilä, Seppo (2005).Recipient-prominence vs. beneficiary-prominence.
- Newman 1996 05Newman, John (1996).Give: A Cognitive Linguistic Study.
- Peterson 2007 06Peterson, David A. (2007).Applicative Constructions.Oxford Studies in Typology and Linguistic Theory. Oxford University Press.
- Satō 2008 07Satō, Tomomi 佐藤知己 (2008).アイヌ語文法の基礎 [Foundations of Ainu grammar].Daigaku Shorin 大学書林.
- Schachter & Otanes 1972 08Schachter, Paul; Otanes, Fe T. (1972).Tagalog Reference Grammar.University of California Press.
- Shibatani 1994 09Shibatani, Masayoshi (1994).Benefactive constructions: A Japanese-Korean comparative perspective.Japanese/Korean Linguistics 4. CSLI Publications. 39–74.
- Zúñiga & Kittilä 2010 10Zúñiga, Fernando; Kittilä, Seppo (2010).Benefactives and Malefactives: Typological Perspectives and Case Studies.
- 山田敏弘 2004 11山田敏弘 (2004).日本語のベネファクティブ ——「てやる」「てくれる」「てもらう」の文法.明治書院.
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