模式

Counting Things

What has to stand between a number and the thing counted?

English puts a number straight in front of most nouns — three books, three dogs — and only reaches for an extra word when the noun resists counting: three sheets of paper, two head of cattle. Across East and Southeast Asia that extra word is required for ordinary countable things, and which one you pick depends on what the thing is. Japanese counts books with 冊, sheets with 枚 and pencils with 本. Bantu languages get at a comparable job from the other end, making the numeral agree with the class the noun already belongs to.

语义领域: 量化
形式结构: 名词分类
机制: 语法化

策略

A classifier picked by the thing

NUM + CLF + N / N + NUM + CLF

A counting word joins the numeral, and which word it is depends on the thing counted — its shape, whether it is alive, what it is for. Japanese, Korean, Mandarin, Thai, Vietnamese, Burmese and Yucatec Maya all work this way. Mandarin and Vietnamese put the numeral and classifier before the noun; Thai and Burmese put them after it. Counting ordinary things, the classifier is required; units of time, money and measure are counted without one, as in Japanese 三年 san-nen “three years”.

Japanese · 本を三冊 hon o san-satsuKorean · 책 세 권 chaek se gwonMandarin Chinese · 三本書 sān běn shūThai · หนังสือสามเล่ม nǎngsɯ̌ɯ sǎam lêmVietnamese · ba quyển sách Burmese · စာအုပ် သုံး အုပ် sa-ouʔ thóuñ ouʔYucatec Maya · óox-túul / óox-p’éel Bengali · তিনটি বই tinṭi boi

The noun as its own classifier

N + NUM + N

When no dedicated classifier covers a noun, the noun itself fills the slot. Burmese does this readily, and Thai and Vietnamese allow it for some nouns. The construction shows how firmly the slot is held: something has to go there, so the noun goes there twice.

Burmese · မြို့ သုံး မြို့ myo̰ thóuñ myo̰

Classifiers you may drop

NUM (+ CLF) + N

The language has a set of counting words but does not require them. Indonesian and Malay have orang for people, ekor for animals and buah for things, and everyday speech often leaves them out where a formal register keeps them.

Indonesian · tiga (buah) buku

A unit word only where needed

NUM + UNIT of N

No classifier for ordinary countable nouns, but a measure word for anything that comes without natural units. English needs sheets of paper, loaves of bread, head of cattle; German has drei Blatt Papier. The word names a portion or a unit, and is not chosen by the kind of thing.

English · three sheets of paper German · drei Blatt Papier

Agreement instead

N-CLASS + NUM-CLASS

The noun already belongs to a class marked on the noun itself, and the numeral picks up that class as agreement. Swahili vitabu vitatu “three books” and watu watatu “three people” carry the class on both words. Typologists keep noun class and numeral classifiers apart, since a noun class runs as concord through the whole clause while a classifier is a word chosen for one counting phrase. It sits here because it answers the same question about counting from the other direction: nothing is inserted, because the sorting is in the nouns to begin with.

Swahili · vitabu vitatu Zulu · izincwadi ezintathu

Nothing in between

NUM + N

The numeral sits directly against the noun, with no classifier and no agreement to speak of. This is the ordinary case across Europe and much of the world.

English · three books German · drei Bücher Russian · три книги tri knigiFrench · trois livres

地理分布

选定一个对象，每个圆点即为该语言的说法，颜色对应动词所用的策略。点击圆点可查看具体形式。

A classifier picked by the thing Classifiers you may drop Agreement instead Nothing in between

Marker positions are approximate cultural centres — they are not territorial claims. Tiles: OpenFreeMap · © OpenStreetMap contributors · Dark tiles: © CARTO.

语言对比

Language	Strategy	Expression	Note
Japanese Japonic	A classifier picked by the thing	本を三冊 hon o san-satsu	the numeral and classifier form one word, and stand apart from the noun Downing 1996 Aikhenvald 2000
Korean Koreanic	A classifier picked by the thing	책 세 권 chaek se gwon	Aikhenvald 2000
Mandarin Chinese Sino-Tibetan › Sinitic	A classifier picked by the thing	三本書 sān běn shū	Chao 1968 Aikhenvald 2000
Thai Tai-Kadai › Tai	A classifier picked by the thing	หนังสือสามเล่ม nǎngsɯ̌ɯ sǎam lêm	the noun comes first, then the numeral, then the classifier Aikhenvald 2000
Vietnamese Austroasiatic › Vietic	A classifier picked by the thing	ba quyển sách	Nguyễn Đình-Hoà 1957 Aikhenvald 2000
Burmese Sino-Tibetan › Burmish	A classifier picked by the thing	စာအုပ် သုံး အုပ် sa-ouʔ thóuñ ouʔ	noun, numeral, classifier — and here the classifier is the second half of the noun itself Okell 1969
Yucatec Maya Mayan	A classifier picked by the thing	óox-túul / óox-p’éel	the classifier attaches to the numeral and splits animate from inanimate Lucy 1992 Blaha Pfeiler & Skopeteas 2024 Aikhenvald 2000
Bengali Indo-European › Indo-Aryan	A classifier picked by the thing	তিনটি বই tinṭi boi	-ṭi and -ṭa are enclitics on the numeral rather than separate words, and on a noun they mark it as definite: boi-ṭi “the book”. South Asian classifiers work this way generally Aikhenvald 2000
Burmese Sino-Tibetan › Burmish	The noun as its own classifier	မြို့ သုံး မြို့ myo̰ thóuñ myo̰	“city three city” — the noun repeats where no separate classifier serves Okell 1969
Indonesian Austronesian › Malayic	Classifiers you may drop	tiga (buah) buku	orang for people, ekor for animals, buah for things; casual speech drops them Aikhenvald 2000
English Indo-European › Germanic	A unit word only where needed	three sheets of paper	and two head of cattle, where the unit word survives in an old invariant form
English Indo-European › Germanic	Nothing in between	three books
German Indo-European › Germanic	A unit word only where needed	drei Blatt Papier	Blatt stays singular after a numeral, as do Stück and Mann in the same use
German Indo-European › Germanic	Nothing in between	drei Bücher
Russian Indo-European › Slavic	Nothing in between	три книги tri knigi	the numeral governs the case of the noun, but nothing stands between them
French Indo-European › Romance	Nothing in between	trois livres
Swahili Atlantic-Congo › Bantu	Agreement instead	vitabu vitatu	class 8 vi- on both the noun and the numeral Ashton 1944
Zulu Atlantic-Congo › Bantu	Agreement instead	izincwadi ezintathu	class 10 agreement on the numeral

Which counting word for which thing

Read across a row for one language counting seven things; read down a column for one thing across languages. The classifier languages split the row into several different words, while English and German leave almost every cell empty and Swahili fills them with agreement rather than a separate word. Where one language reuses a word down several rows, the run of a single colour shows it.

Language	books Bound volumes — often their own class. Cells show the numeral and classifier only; Thai and Burmese put that pair after the noun, the others before it.	people Humans, almost always set apart from everything else.	dogs An animal, where animacy usually decides.	pencils Long and thin, the commonest shape category.	cars A machine, and a recent arrival to every system here.	houses Buildings, counted by their own word in most of these languages.	sheets of paper Flat, thin things. The one English also has to mark.
Japanese Japonic	三冊 san-satsu A classifier picked by the thing bound volumes	三人 san-nin A classifier picked by the thing	三匹 san-biki A classifier picked by the thing small animals; large ones take 頭	三本 san-bon A classifier picked by the thing long thin things	三台 san-dai A classifier picked by the thing machines and vehicles	三軒 san-gen A classifier picked by the thing houses and shops	三枚 san-mai A classifier picked by the thing flat thin things: paper, plates, shirts
Korean Koreanic	세 권 se gwon A classifier picked by the thing	세 명 se myeong A classifier picked by the thing	세 마리 se mari A classifier picked by the thing animals of any size	세 자루 se jaru A classifier picked by the thing things with a shaft or handle	세 대 se dae A classifier picked by the thing	세 채 se chae A classifier picked by the thing	세 장 se jang A classifier picked by the thing flat sheets
Mandarin Chinese Sino-Tibetan › Sinitic	三本 sān běn A classifier picked by the thing	三個 sān gè A classifier picked by the thing 個 is the general classifier; 位 is the polite one for people	三隻 sān zhī A classifier picked by the thing homophonous with 支 but a different word	三支 sān zhī A classifier picked by the thing	三輛 sān liàng A classifier picked by the thing wheeled vehicles	三棟 sān dòng A classifier picked by the thing buildings; 間 counts rooms	三張 sān zhāng A classifier picked by the thing flat spreadable things: paper, tables, beds
Thai Tai-Kadai › Tai	สามเล่ม sǎam lêm A classifier picked by the thing books, and also knives and candles. Thai puts the whole phrase after the noun: หนังสือสามเล่ม	สามคน sǎam khon A classifier picked by the thing the same word as the noun “person”	สามตัว sǎam tua A classifier picked by the thing animals, and clothing with a body shape	สามแท่ง sǎam thâeng A classifier picked by the thing ด้าม is used for pens and other things held by a handle	สามคัน sǎam khan A classifier picked by the thing	สามหลัง sǎam lǎng A classifier picked by the thing	สามแผ่น sǎam phàen A classifier picked by the thing
Vietnamese Austroasiatic › Vietic	ba quyển A classifier picked by the thing cuốn in the south	ba người A classifier picked by the thing the same word as the noun “person”	ba con A classifier picked by the thing con covers animals and marks animacy broadly	ba cây A classifier picked by the thing cây is also the noun “tree”	ba chiếc A classifier picked by the thing	ba ngôi A classifier picked by the thing căn is also used	ba tờ A classifier picked by the thing
Burmese Sino-Tibetan › Burmish	သုံး အုပ် thóuñ ouʔ A classifier picked by the thing	သုံး ယောက် thóuñ yauʔ A classifier picked by the thing	သုံး ကောင် thóuñ kaung A classifier picked by the thing animals	—	—	—	—
Indonesian Austronesian › Malayic	tiga (buah) buku Classifiers you may drop	tiga orang Classifiers you may drop orang is the noun “person”	tiga ekor anjing Classifiers you may drop ekor is the noun “tail”	tiga batang pensil Classifiers you may drop batang is also the noun “stem, trunk”	—	—	tiga lembar kertas Classifiers you may drop
Bengali Indo-European › Indo-Aryan	তিনটি বই tinṭi boi A classifier picked by the thing -ṭi attaches to the numeral; -jon is used for people	তিনজন tinjon A classifier picked by the thing	—	—	—	—	—
Yucatec Maya Mayan	óoxp’éel A classifier picked by the thing the inanimate classifier	óoxtúul A classifier picked by the thing	óoxtúul A classifier picked by the thing the animate classifier	—	—	—	—
Swahili Atlantic-Congo › Bantu	vitabu vitatu Agreement instead class 8 on the noun and on the numeral	watu watatu Agreement instead class 2	mbwa watatu Agreement instead animals take class 2 agreement whatever their own prefix	—	—	—	—
English Indo-European › Germanic	three books Nothing in between	three people Nothing in between	three dogs Nothing in between	three pencils Nothing in between	three cars Nothing in between	three houses Nothing in between	three sheets of paper A unit word only where needed paper cannot be counted directly
German Indo-European › Germanic	drei Bücher Nothing in between	drei Menschen Nothing in between	drei Hunde Nothing in between	drei Bleistifte Nothing in between	—	—	drei Blatt Papier A unit word only where needed Blatt keeps its singular form after a numeral
Russian Indo-European › Slavic	три книги tri knigi Nothing in between the numeral puts the noun in a particular case, but adds no word	три человека tri cheloveka Nothing in between	—	—	—	—	—
French Indo-European › Romance	trois livres Nothing in between	trois personnes Nothing in between	—	—	—	—	trois feuilles de papier A unit word only where needed

列的聚类

当同一语言对两列使用同一个动词时，两列即视为接近。分支在越靠右处合并，表示越多语言将该组合视为一体；表格与地图的列序依此树排列，因此相邻的列行为相似。

36% dogs · people 4 of 11 — Yucatec Maya, Swahili, English, German

29% books · people 4 of 14 — English, German, Russian, French

25% books · pencils 2 of 8 — English, German

25% pencils · dogs 2 of 8 — English, German

25% pencils · people 2 of 8 — English, German

18% books · dogs 2 of 11 — English, German

17% books · cars 1 of 6 — English

17% books · houses 1 of 6 — English

17% pencils · cars 1 of 6 — English

17% pencils · houses 1 of 6 — English

17% dogs · cars 1 of 6 — English

17% dogs · houses 1 of 6 — English

17% cars · people 1 of 6 — English

17% cars · houses 1 of 6 — English

17% people · houses 1 of 6 — English

Sheets of paper sits at the far end. No language here uses its verb for books, pencils, dogs, cars, people or houses.

例句

在「自然 / 直译 / 注释」之间切换，对比同一概念在各语言中的不同表达方式。

The same three books

One phrase in five languages: a classifier word in Japanese, Mandarin and Thai, class agreement on the numeral in Swahili, and nothing at all in English.

Japanese · 日本語

本を三冊買った。

hon o san-satsu katta.

自然: I bought three books.

Mandarin Chinese · 普通话

我買了三本書。

wǒ mǎi le sān běn shū.

自然: I bought three books.

Thai · ภาษาไทย

หนังสือสามเล่ม

nǎngsɯ̌ɯ sǎam lêm

自然: Three books.

Swahili · Kiswahili

vitabu vitatu

自然: Three books.

English

three books

自然: Three books.

参考文献

Aikhenvald 2000 01

Aikhenvald, Alexandra Y. (2000).

Classifiers: A Typology of Noun Categorization Devices.

Oxford Studies in Typology and Linguistic Theory. Oxford University Press.
Ashton 1944 02

Ashton, E. O. (1944).

Swahili Grammar (Including Intonation).

Longmans, Green & Co..
Bisang 1999 03

Bisang, Walter (1999).

Classifiers in East and Southeast Asian languages: Counting and beyond.

In Gvozdanović, Jadranka (eds.), Numeral Types and Changes Worldwide. Mouton de Gruyter. 113–185. doi:10.1515/9783110811193.113
Blaha Pfeiler & Skopeteas 2024 04

Blaha Pfeiler, Barbara; Skopeteas, Stavros (2024).

Numeral classifiers in Yucatec Maya: Microvariation and syntactic change.

Journal of Historical Syntax. 8(6). doi:10.18148/hs/2024.v8i6.219
Chao 1968 05

Chao, Yuen Ren (1968).

A Grammar of Spoken Chinese.

University of California Press.
Downing 1996 06

Downing, Pamela A. (1996).

Numeral Classifier Systems: The Case of Japanese.

Studies in Discourse and Grammar 4. John Benjamins. doi:10.1075/sidag.4
Gil 2013 07

Gil, David (2013).

Numeral Classifiers.

In Dryer, Matthew S.; Haspelmath, Martin (eds.), The World Atlas of Language Structures Online, chapter 55. Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology. https://wals.info/chapter/55
Grinevald 2000 08

Grinevald, Colette (2000).

A morphosyntactic typology of classifiers.

In Senft, Gunter (eds.), Systems of Nominal Classification. Cambridge University Press. 50–92.
Lucy 1992 09

Lucy, John A. (1992).

Grammatical Categories and Cognition: A Case Study of the Linguistic Relativity Hypothesis.

Studies in the Social and Cultural Foundations of Language 13. Cambridge University Press.
Nguyễn Đình-Hoà 1957 10

Nguyễn Đình-Hoà (1957).

Classifiers in Vietnamese.

Word. 13(1): 124–152.
Okell 1969 11

Okell, John (1969).

A Reference Grammar of Colloquial Burmese.

Oxford University Press.
Senft 2000 12

Senft, Gunter (2000).

Systems of Nominal Classification.

Language, Culture and Cognition 4. Cambridge University Press.

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