Pattern

Coordination

Where does the word for “and” sit when a language lists three things?

English puts and once, before the last item: bread, milk and eggs. Japanese can use 及び the same way in formal writing, but speech more often follows each item with と — パンと牛乳と卵 — or leaves the particles out altogether: パン、牛乳、卵. The particle や marks the items as examples and leaves the list open. Arabic puts wa- before every item after the first, Latin attaches -que to the last item, and Korean and Mandarin often use nothing at all. In Japanese, Korean and Swahili the coordinator also means “with”. Languages differ in where the marker sits and in whether a list has one at all.

Structure: Coordination Syncretism

Strategies

One word before the last item

A, B and C

A single coordinator stands before the last item: bread, milk and eggs; Brot, Milch und Eier; 面包、牛奶和鸡蛋; ekmek, süt ve yumurta. The earlier items are separated by punctuation or intonation alone. A list of any length takes the same one word.

English · bread, milk and eggs German · Brot, Milch und Eier French · pain, lait et œufs Spanish · pan, leche y huevos Russian · хлеб, молоко и яйца khleb, moloko i yaytsaMandarin Chinese · 面包、牛奶和鸡蛋 miànbāo, niúnǎi hé jīdànKorean · 빵, 우유 및 달걀 ppang, uyu mit dalgyalTurkish · ekmek, süt ve yumurta Vietnamese · bánh mì, sữa và trứng Indonesian · roti, susu, dan telur Swahili · mkate, maziwa na mayai Welsh · bara, llaeth ac wyau Hebrew (Modern) · לחם, חלב וביצים lechem, chalav u-veytsimHindi · रोटी, दूध और अंडे roṭī, dūdh aur aṇḍeJapanese · パン、牛乳及び卵 pan, gyūnyū oyobi tamagoPersian (Farsi) · نان، شیر و تخممرغ nān, shīr va tokhm-e morgh

A word before each later item

A wa-B wa-C

Arabic puts wa- before every item after the first: خبز ولبن وبيض, bread, milk and eggs. The first item stands bare, and each later one carries the word.

Arabic (MSA) · خبز ولبن وبيض khubz wa-laban wa-bayḍ

A word after each item but the last

AとBとC（と）

Japanese and Korean use a particle that follows each item but the last: パンと牛乳と卵, 빵과 우유와 달걀. Japanese speech often adds a final と as well — パンと牛乳と卵と — and Korean lists frequently drop the particle and rely on commas.

Japanese · パンと牛乳と卵 pan to gyūnyū to tamagoJapanese · パンと牛乳と卵と pan to gyūnyū to tamago toKorean · 빵과 우유와 달걀 ppang-gwa uyu-wa dalgyal

A word on the last item

A, B C-que

Latin attaches -que to the final item: panem, lac ovumque ēmī, I bought bread, milk and eggs. The coordinator cannot stand alone; it leans on the word before it, and the earlier items are unmarked.

Latin · panem, lac ovumque

No word at all

A, B, C

Japanese, Korean, Mandarin, Vietnamese and Thai all allow a list with no coordinator: パン、牛乳、卵; 빵, 우유, 달걀; 面包、牛奶、鸡蛋; bánh mì, sữa, trứng; ขนมปัง นม ไข่. Commas, spaces or intonation separate the items. The bare list is ordinary in speech, and writing often keeps it.

Japanese · パン、牛乳、卵 pan, gyūnyū, tamagoKorean · 빵, 우유, 달걀 ppang, uyu, dalgyalMandarin Chinese · 面包、牛奶、鸡蛋 miànbāo, niúnǎi, jīdànVietnamese · bánh mì, sữa, trứng Thai · ขนมปัง นม ไข่

A list left open

A や B（や C）など

Japanese や joins items the way と does but marks them as examples: パンや牛乳を買った, I bought bread and milk, among other things. It can repeat — パンや牛乳や卵 — and など often closes the list. With と the same items would be the whole purchase.

Japanese · パンや牛乳、卵 pan ya gyūnyū, tamago

Geographic distribution

Each dot is one attested language, coloured by the strategy it uses. Click a dot for the surface form.

One word before the last item A word before each later item A word after each item but the last A word on the last item No word at all A list left open

Marker positions are approximate cultural centres — they are not territorial claims. Tiles: OpenFreeMap · © OpenStreetMap contributors · Dark tiles: © CARTO.

Language comparison

Language	Strategy	Expression	Note
English Indo-European › Germanic	One word before the last item	bread, milk and eggs	a serial comma can precede and — bread, milk, and eggs Huddleston & Pullum 2002
German Indo-European › Germanic	One word before the last item	Brot, Milch und Eier	Durrell 2002
French Indo-European › Romance	One word before the last item	pain, lait et œufs	Grevisse & Goosse 2016
Spanish Indo-European › Romance	One word before the last item	pan, leche y huevos	Real Academia Española & Asociación de Academias de la Lengua Española 2009
Russian Indo-European › Slavic	One word before the last item	хлеб, молоко и яйца khleb, moloko i yaytsa	Wade & Gillespie 2011
Mandarin Chinese Sino-Tibetan › Sinitic	One word before the last item	面包、牛奶和鸡蛋 miànbāo, niúnǎi hé jīdàn	和 is the common coordinator; 跟 and 与 also serve Li & Thompson 1981
Korean Koreanic	One word before the last item	빵, 우유 및 달걀 ppang, uyu mit dalgyal	및 is the formal coordinator; speech uses 와/과 after the item Sohn 1999
Turkish Turkic › Oghuz	One word before the last item	ekmek, süt ve yumurta	Göksel & Kerslake 2005
Vietnamese Austroasiatic › Vietic	One word before the last item	bánh mì, sữa và trứng	Thompson 1965
Indonesian Austronesian › Malayic	One word before the last item	roti, susu, dan telur	Sneddon 1996
Swahili Atlantic-Congo › Bantu	One word before the last item	mkate, maziwa na mayai	na also means “with” Ashton 1944
Welsh Indo-European › Celtic	One word before the last item	bara, llaeth ac wyau	ac before a vowel, a before a consonant King 2015
Hebrew (Modern) Afro-Asiatic › Semitic	One word before the last item	לחם, חלב וביצים lechem, chalav u-veytsim	the prefix ve- is attached to the last item; it can repeat, though the single form is usual Glinert 1989
Hindi Indo-European › Indo-Aryan	One word before the last item	रोटी, दूध और अंडे roṭī, dūdh aur aṇḍe	Kachru 2006
Japanese Japonic	One word before the last item	パン、牛乳及び卵 pan, gyūnyū oyobi tamago	及び is the formal written coordinator; speech uses と Weblio 辞書 n.d.
Persian (Farsi) Indo-European › Iranian	One word before the last item	نان، شیر و تخممرغ nān, shīr va tokhm-e morgh	va stands before the last item; it can also repeat before each item Mahootian 1997
Arabic (MSA) Afro-Asiatic › Semitic	A word before each later item	خبز ولبن وبيض khubz wa-laban wa-bayḍ	wa- is prefixed to every item after the first Ryding 2005
Japanese Japonic	A word after each item but the last	パンと牛乳と卵 pan to gyūnyū to tamago	と follows each item but the last Shibatani 1990
Japanese Japonic	A word after each item but the last	パンと牛乳と卵と pan to gyūnyū to tamago to	a final と after the last item also occurs in speech Shibatani 1990
Korean Koreanic	A word after each item but the last	빵과 우유와 달걀 ppang-gwa uyu-wa dalgyal	과 after a consonant, 와 after a vowel; many lists drop the particle Sohn 1999
Latin Indo-European › Italic (historical)	A word on the last item	panem, lac ovumque	-que is enclitic on the final item Allen & Greenough 1903
Japanese Japonic	No word at all	パン、牛乳、卵 pan, gyūnyū, tamago	no particle; the commas carry the list Shibatani 1990
Korean Koreanic	No word at all	빵, 우유, 달걀 ppang, uyu, dalgyal	Sohn 1999
Mandarin Chinese Sino-Tibetan › Sinitic	No word at all	面包、牛奶、鸡蛋 miànbāo, niúnǎi, jīdàn	Li & Thompson 1981
Vietnamese Austroasiatic › Vietic	No word at all	bánh mì, sữa, trứng	Thompson 1965
Thai Tai-Kadai › Tai	No word at all	ขนมปัง นม ไข่	spaces separate the items; Thai lists often leave the coordinator out Iwasaki & Ingkaphirom 2005
Japanese Japonic	A list left open	パンや牛乳、卵 pan ya gyūnyū, tamago	や marks the items as examples; など often follows Shibatani 1990

Examples

Toggle between Natural / Literal / Gloss to see how each language conceptualises the same idea.

English

I bought bread, milk and eggs.

Natural: I bought bread, milk and eggs.

Japanese · 日本語

パンと牛乳と卵を買った。

pan to gyūnyū to tamago o katta

Natural: I bought bread, milk and eggs.

Japanese · 日本語

パン、牛乳及び卵を買った。

pan, gyūnyū oyobi tamago o katta

Natural: I bought bread, milk and eggs.

Japanese · 日本語

パン、牛乳、卵を買った。

pan, gyūnyū, tamago o katta

Natural: I bought bread, milk and eggs.

Japanese · 日本語

パンや牛乳、卵を買った。

pan ya gyūnyū, tamago o katta

Natural: I bought bread, milk and eggs, among other things.

Mandarin Chinese · 普通话

我买了面包、牛奶和鸡蛋。

wǒ mǎi le miànbāo, niúnǎi hé jīdàn.

Natural: I bought bread, milk and eggs.

Korean · 한국어

빵과 우유와 달걀을 샀다.

ppang-gwa uyu-wa dalgyal-eul sassda.

Natural: I bought bread, milk and eggs.

Arabic (MSA) · العربية

اشتريت خبزًا ولبنًا وبيضًا.

ishtaraytu khubzan wa-labanan wa-bayḍan.

Natural: I bought bread, milk and eggs.

Latin · lingua Latina

Panem, lac ovumque ēmī.

Natural: I bought bread, milk and eggs.

Turkish · Türkçe

Ekmek, süt ve yumurta aldım.

Natural: I bought bread, milk and eggs.

Hebrew (Modern) · עברית

קניתי לחם, חלב וביצים.

kaniti lechem, chalav u-veytsim.

Natural: I bought bread, milk and eggs.

Vietnamese · tiếng Việt

Tôi mua bánh mì, sữa và trứng.

Natural: I bought bread, milk and eggs.

References

Allen & Greenough 1903 01

Allen, Joseph Henry; Greenough, James Bradstreet (1903).

Allen and Greenough’s New Latin Grammar.

Ginn and Company.
Ashton 1944 02

Ashton, E. O. (1944).

Swahili Grammar (Including Intonation).

Longmans, Green & Co..
Durrell 2002 03

Durrell, Martin (2002).

Hammer’s German Grammar and Usage.

4th edition. Arnold.
Glinert 1989 04

Glinert, Lewis (1989).

The Grammar of Modern Hebrew.

Cambridge University Press.
Grevisse & Goosse 2016 05

Grevisse, Maurice; Goosse, André (2016).

Le bon usage: grammaire française.

16e édition. De Boeck Supérieur.
Göksel & Kerslake 2005 06

Göksel, Aslı; Kerslake, Celia (2005).

Turkish: A Comprehensive Grammar.

Routledge.
Haspelmath 2004 07

Haspelmath, Martin (2004).

Coordinating constructions: An overview.

In Haspelmath, Martin (eds.), Coordinating Constructions. John Benjamins. 3–39.
Huddleston & Pullum 2002 08

Huddleston, Rodney; Pullum, Geoffrey K. (2002).

The Cambridge Grammar of the English Language.

Cambridge University Press.
Iwasaki & Ingkaphirom 2005 09

Iwasaki, Shoichi; Ingkaphirom, Preeya (2005).

A Reference Grammar of Thai.

Cambridge University Press.
Kachru 2006 10

Kachru, Yamuna (2006).

Hindi.

John Benjamins.
King 2015 11

King, Gareth (2015).

Modern Welsh: A Comprehensive Grammar, 3rd edn.

Routledge. doi:10.4324/9781315739410
Li & Thompson 1981 12

Li, Charles N.; Thompson, Sandra A. (1981).

Mandarin Chinese: A Functional Reference Grammar.

University of California Press.
Mahootian 1997 13

Mahootian, Shahrzad (1997).

Persian.

Routledge.
Real Academia Española & Asociación de Academias de la Lengua Española 2009 14

Real Academia Española; Asociación de Academias de la Lengua Española (2009).

Nueva gramática de la lengua española.

Espasa.
Ryding 2005 15

Ryding, Karin C. (2005).

A Reference Grammar of Modern Standard Arabic.

Cambridge University Press.
Shibatani 1990 16

Shibatani, Masayoshi (1990).

The Languages of Japan.

Cambridge University Press.
Sneddon 1996 17

Sneddon, James Neil (1996).

Indonesian: A Comprehensive Grammar.

Routledge.
Sohn 1999 18

Sohn, Ho-Min (1999).

The Korean Language.

Cambridge University Press.
Thompson 1965 19

Thompson, Laurence C. (1965).

A Vietnamese Grammar.

University of Washington Press.
Wade & Gillespie 2011 20

Wade, Terence; Gillespie, David (2011).

A Comprehensive Russian Grammar.

3rd edition. Wiley-Blackwell.
Weblio 辞書 n.d. 21

Weblio 辞書 (n.d.).

デジタル大辞泉: 及び（および）.

https://www.weblio.jp/content/及び

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